The Dutch General Intelligence and Security Service (Algemen Inlichtingen en Veiligheidsdienst, or AIVD) has highlighted intersecting internal and external threats to the rule of law in the Netherlands in its annual report, including cyber threats such as cyberattacks and espionage.

The agency underlined 'the massive threat that now emanates from countries with cyberattack programs, such as China, Russia and Iran.'

China has been described as 'the greatest threat to the economic security of the Netherlands' in the report. The agency's director general Erik Akerboom told Associated Press: 'The Chinese use cyber as a weapon, cyber as a way to commit espionage, but they also send people to us - students, but also scientific persons of all kind to especially steal knowledge from very vulnerable places.' Earlier this year, the Netherlands announced additional restrictions on exports of machines making advanced processor chips. The Dutch have allegedly joined a US push to restrict China's access to materials to manufacture such chips.

Many countries have developed cyberattack programmes or offensive cyber capabilities (OCCs). The GIP mapped almost 50 countries with such capabilities on our dedicated Cyberconflict and warfare page.